What Is the Secret to Long Life?

What is the secret to long life? The secret to long life all depends on how we take care of our own bodies. After taking my test on Blue zone I saw many bad habits that got in the way of me living longer. According to Blue zones Vitality quiz my biological age was two years older than what I really was. My life expectancy wasn’t as high as many other peers of mine that took the quiz. MY life expectancy age was 79. 2. If I fix my bad habits its more likely those 19. 4 years will be added to my life expectancy age.My life expectancy ages were this low because of the habits I have that are not good for my body as I get older. One big problem that I have is I’m most of my time. Blue zone recommended that I should battle my feelings of stress by talking it over, exercising, eating right and getting enough sleep. I also learned that anxiety can because you skin becomes pale, heart rate increase and muscles to tense up. When I get an anxiety the best way to control it is to ju st recognize signs of anxiety and then take a walk or breathe in deeply.Another bad habit is that I don’t eat as many vegetables as my body should be getting. Blue zones recommended that if I was offered a hamburger and vegetables, it makes more sense to get the vegetables which are better for my eye health. A scientific study was done and concluded that that people who ate the highest amount of yellow and dark green, leafy vegetables had a reduced chance of developing blindness. ON the other hand o also needs to enjoy some fruits.In my quiz it stated that people who have diets rich in fruits and vegetables lower their risk of Alzheimer and dementia by 30%. Since I’m a college student I do get a lot of fast food. I need to eat healthier and eat food with fewer calories. It hard for me to stay away from the junk food since it seems so appealing comparing it to the healthy food. But my health is important and the best way to get my body healthy is to avoid foods on high fructose syrup and becoming aware of what I put in my body. My body needs exercise, healthier food and emotional control of anxiety and anger.

Ethnic and Religious Conflict in Nigeria

Analysis of the challenges of religion and ethnicity on political stability in Nigeria’s fourth republic (1999-2011) INTRODUCTION Background to the Study Basically, Nigeria is a plural society and heterogeneous in virtually all the facet of life. The custom and tradition of Nigerians is so diverse to the extent that Nigeria as a country is now confronted with the problem of religion and ethnicity towards their political stability. The origin and history of ethnic conflict (societal wars and violence) can be traced from eternal (internal) state rivalry to external (physical).And its root cause is not very far from power competition and decision making over economic resources and other important human factor, like position. The implementation process has always involved more than one or two persons. In general concept, the author of this work traces conflict back to the first and early Patriarchal of human history and ever since then, there has been an increase (in various dimen sions) of Conflict in the face of human world. Some are personal (internal) conflict, family, community, and group, intellectual, state, national and international in nature, to mention but few.In conforming to this idea, Badawi (2006) in his statement titled â€Å"World Apart† stated thus, â€Å"indeed the greatest discord today is among the descendants of Abraham. These are the people of the book, the followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, who had in fact shared a common beginning in the religion of Abraham†. In shedding more light in the above statement, Badawi statement goes far beyond religion, rather, he was tracing one of the earliest source of conflict which Badawi mentioned the off-springs of the said Abraham.Even before Abraham, there had been conflict, so it is as old as human history down to the Abrahamic period, to ancient kingdoms, Dukes, and Kings. In about 88 B. C. , King Mithriadates VI of Pontus invaded Roman territory in Asian Minor. He advise d Asian debtors to kill their Roman creditors. Happy to reduce their credit card bills, the Asians massacred 80,000 Romans. Ethno-political conflicts have greatly shaped our present world and of course have its structural phenomenon, (William Easterly, 2001). For instances, the conflict we now call Israeli and Palestinian war, has been an ever-lengthening sort.The Assyrian, Babylonian war, by King Nebuchadnezzar of the hanging Garden in history, the Persia war, Alexander the Great (the Macedonian mad man in history), the German war of Adolf’s Hitler, the Roman wars, narrowing all these down, we came to the horn of African continent which seem to be an epidemic field of conflicts of diverse kinds till date. The giant-lion of African continent, just like the origin of conflict is said to have stated very old in human history, even so in the case of Nigeria, which can be traced to the colonial period of history. Conflict takes different sizes and shapes with diverse reasons and purposes.Majority of the conflicts takes time before their escalation and at such, could have been transformed right at their respective early stages. The history of ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria is also traced back to the colonial transgressions that forced the ethnic groups of the northern and southern provinces to become an entity called Nigeria in 1914. In the case of Nigeria situation, disturbing history of colonialism, this generated hatred and conflict among different ethnic groups. The task of addressing this seed of conflict planted by the British has been a complex one.After weakening the former diverse kingdoms, Emperors, etc now called Nigeria and reordering the groups’ politics, the colonial powers failed in nation building and providing for the people's basic needs. Hence, unemployment, poverty increase, and due to these, conflict over scarce resources ensue. The Southern and Northern protectorates were also being amalgamated into a nation. Thereafte r, the merging of different colonies into one country called Nigeria was forcefully done without the people's consent. This was a major seed of conflict that is still troubling Nigeria today.This article is focused on the historical incidents of ethnic conflicts in within Nigeria societies, the cause of the conflicts and perhaps, the government actions towards ethnic conflict in the country. In conclusion, this paper will explore into decision-making (by the elites and those in authority) process has contributed immensely in generating the syndromes of conflict in the said state. The Nigerian political situation has witnessed more breaking of heads, than counting them. In fact, even when it has been convenient for heads to be counted, the outcome has always been the breaking of heads instead.Conflict in Nigeria is so intense because of lack of democratic behaviour. The head of the individual in the democratic context signifies citizenship. So when heads are broken in the Nigerian po litical community, the issue in respect of broken heads is citizenship. If conflict in Nigeria means the absence of democratic behaviour, it follows, therefore, that conflict in Nigeria is interwoven with the absence of democratic governance. Gurr (2000): has also shown that the incidence of conflicts at the global level declined in recent years with the deepening of democratisation.Nation-states where conflicts persist are those where what obtains is the democratisation of disempowerment (Ake 1996). Beyond the veneer of elections, the state remains ambushed, privatised, repressive and unpopular. The people who were tantalised by the prospect of a democratic revolution that would terminate decades of alienation and pauperisation have been short changed and given a ‘choice less democracy’ (Mkandawire 1999). The ‘credibility gap’ which fostered the De-linkage of the people from the state, and ignited social forces to struggle for democracy, is not being bridg ed (Rothchild 1995: 58).African peoples out of clear rational calculations sans atavistic attachments have turned their backs on the state ‘and given their loyalty to sub-national social formations such as the community, the sub nationality or ethnic groups’ (Ake 2000: 114). It is against this backdrop that the proliferation and exacerbation of violent ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria in the post-transition period can be appreciated. This article adopts an analytical framework that holds that The interface between ethnicity and democratisation is found in absence of effective citizenship and good governance in post-transition societies.In the circumstance that democracy does not go beyond the conduct of multiparty elections to include improvement in the quality of life of the people, there is frustration, and people who already feel alienated from the state are vulnerable and likely to be mobilised around counter-elites who exploit extant popular alienation from the state by whipping up sectarian sentiments. This has been the case in Nigeria and several multi-ethnic states of Africa (Osaghae 1994).Although the foregoing theoretical discussion has focused on ethnicity, the term ethno-religious is adopted because some of the recent violent conflicts to be examined were triggered by religious issues. The relevance of religion is also underlined by the fact that in Nigeria ethnic boundaries tend to coincide with religion, with the exception of the Yoruba ethnic group (Ibrahim 1999). The Nigeria state was amalgamated in the year 1914 by lord lugard. The various geographical areas or territory which was amalgamated to form Nigeria by the colonialist comprises of various cleavages, clans, towns even there were kingdoms and hiefdoms with diverse culture, language, religion, norms values, customs and political structures etc. The focus of the research monogram is to examine the role of religion and ethnicity in Nigeria nascent democracy. In Nigeria esp ecially, religion plays a very vital and influential role in the society that has manifested itself as a potent force in the political development of the Nigerian state from pre-independence to post-independence. Hardly can the Nigerian state be talked about without reference to religion (Kukah, 1994; Falola, 1990; Kenny, 2006; International IDEA, 2000; Suberu, 2009).However, religion in Nigeria, at different levels, is mostly mentioned in negative terms. Or rather, historical events linked to religion tilts more towards its negative than its positive contribution to the Nigerian state. The Jihad, the civil war propaganda, the Sharia law controversy, the tensions provoked by the Nigerian accession to the Organization of Islamic Countries (OIC) and the incessant religious crises that have engulfed the Northern part mainly indicate that religion cannot be ignored or wished away in the Nigerian political development. Several religious crises have occurred in Nigeria.They have been docu mented as academic dissertations for some of them. This piece of work does not intend to start the discourse on religious violence anew but only recognizes the fact that as a recurrent phenomenon it is worth being explored further. Thus â€Å"Boko Haram† menace which gained global recognition and even press support ranging from July 2009 till date is a the central focus of this study together with other riots which has engulfed the Nigeria state from 1999 till date which most Nigeria educated elite believed that religion and ethnicity were the basic causes.The educated elite have conducted series of research on what the causes of this violent riots maybe. Most have concluded that it can be traced and linked to the failure of governance in Nigeria. 1. 2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS The mistake of 1914 has polarised the Nigeria society together with its citizens in which loyalty to the State is a mirage instead people pay loyalty to their various families and ethnic groups the effect of this can be traced to 1967 civil-war which disintegrate the country or in the political system which almost lead to secession of the country with the easterner believed to be the aggrieved ethnic in the war.Similarly Nigeria has a long history of religious crisis which has affected the political instability of Nigeria. The maintasine riot of 1980 can be said to be the first major religious riot in Nigerian history, claiming about 800 lives. The Boko Haram insurgence in the northern part of the country which has been directed mainly against the Christians, they have suffered a lot both physically, psychologically, economically, spiritually and even politically in the far North which has led political writers and pundits to affirm that Boko Haram conflict has its roots in Religion.The thrust of this work will be to examine the underlying reasons behind political instability in Nigeria using religion and ethnicity as a paradigm. 1. 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY. The study will cover the impa cts of religion and ethnicity towards the stabilization or in- stabilization of the Nigeria political system it will cover how religion and ethnicity have impacted on the political stability of Nigeria. Furthermore the study will emphasize more on the role the government is playing in stabilizing the un-stabilized country. 1. 4OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The following can be regarded as the aims and objective of the study 1.To know the meaning of religion, ethnicity, political stability, and political instability 2. To know how religion and ethnicity have negatively impacted on Nigerian political development 3. To develop possible solutions and panaceas to the problems of religions and ethnicity to Nigerian political in-stability 1. 5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1 What meaning does religion, ethnicity and political instability carries 2 How has religion and ethnicity impacted on the political stability of Nigeria 3 what are the possible solutions to the problem of religion and ethnicity in Nigeri a political system 1. JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Many a developing countries of the world are currently experiencing the problems which ethnicity and religion have caused. The ethnic problem which led to the apartheid era in South Africa is also the same ethnicity and religion problem which has almost disintegrated the Nigerian State. Recalling back to what happen during the civil war in the late sixties and early seventies which led to the introduction of the national youth service corp. by the then military president General Yakubu Gowon which aim at integrating back the almost disintegrated country.Books, Journals, Magazines, Pamphlets, and lot of researches have been written and carried out respectively on the issue of ethnicity and religion, and its impact on the Nigeria political stability. This research work will serve as an additional material to the issue on ethnicity and religion to political instability in Nigeria, this work will focus more on ethnicity and religion and its i mpact on Nigerian politics 1. 7RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology will be based on secondary data collections ranging from books, Journals Newspapers, News Magazines, Pamphlets and even the Internet.In conducting any research basically there are two methodologies employed by researchers which are the primary and the secondary methods. This research work will be basically conducted using the secondary methodology as earlier mentioned. 1. 8DEFINITION OF TERMS Ethnicity: According to the oxford advance learners dictionary ethnicity can simply mean â€Å"the fact of belonging to a particular race† from the dictionary meaning we can deduced the fact that Humans believed in race and they have passion for race which leads to humans ethnocentrism i. e. highly ethnocentric in nature.Ethnicity has a strategic interaction of persons and other actors, who have different beliefs, attitude’s, values and goals as they decide particular conflict the distribution of resource ’s and general issues of political rules within a context of norms, expectations and institutions. Any of the rule, expectation and institutions may be reversed, maintained or inverted by the individual who win the right to control them, in the course of those political negotiations that are sometimes called cooperation, and sometimes called war, and are usually somewhere between the two.In another sense, ethnic identity are political resources just like money or vote. Instrumentalist like Micheal Banton and Micheal Hecthtar, argue that ethnic identity are not inherent in group or socio-formation of people. They see ethnic identity as socio-capital brought to bear on the political negotiation table by different groups and at different times. Hutchinson and Smith also argue that ethnic identity are an important resource that political Elite employ in securing the support of the masses as a strategy for gaining a desired good.These goods and or goals are â€Å"measured in term s of wealth, power, and status and†¦ joining or national communities helps to secure these ends either by influencing the state, or in certain situations, through secession. Religion: religion on its own part can be regarded as the belief in the existence of God or gods and the activity that are connected in the worship of them. Religion can also be stress further by meaning one of the system of faith that are based on the belief in the existence of a particular God or gods.For example the Jewish religion, Christianity Islam and other world religion. Furthermore in the classical and ancient ages religion has achieved a lot in their politics for example the doctrine of Islam was used in many Arab nations has their constitution even up till the present age. The Ancient Romans, also, during the time of Constantine accepted Christianity as a religion and a mode of life which also affected their political terrain.Religion in the 21 century is now used narrowly towards Christianity a nd Islam even though other religion still exist but the former two religion have elevated to prominence that other religion are now beneath them. For instance about Political stability: can depict the mean of a system of politics in which the government of that State is experiencing a stable government and peaceful existence in the State or in otherworld’s a legitimately accepted government by the people. Democratically governed States are believed to be stable.In the global sense every political entity must be ruled democratically without internal oppression or external aggression. Any country of the world that is free from the aforementioned point are regarded as stable political system in other words internal oppression has cause a lot of havoc to many democracies of the world which has infringed on their stability as noted by Ojo 2002. Descent Rule: These covers a larger set of cases that we commonly understand to be ethnic than the rules that ethnic groups must have a my th of common ancestry or common origin.But it excludes several cases in which individuals routinely consider themselves, and are considered as members, of a group that we classify as ethnic even when their parents were not coded as members of this group. Take for example the category â€Å"Yoruba† when it was invented in Nigeria in the nineteenth century. At this time period, the parents of those who were classified as Yoruba were not themselves classified as Yoruba for the reason that this category did not exist during their lifetimes.According to Descent Rule, then, the category Yoruba in the nineteenth century would not be coded as ethnic. But the category Yoruba is universally coded as an ethnic category by all comparative political scientists, without making a distinction between time periods. As another example, consider the category â€Å"Backward Caste† in India, which included as members individuals who possessed a given set of last names and/or ancestral occu pations. The category was introduced by the Indian Central Government in 1990.Within a few years, 52% of the Indian population classified itself and was classified as backward. Yet the parents of those who termed themselves â€Å"Backward Caste† were not coded by themselves or by others as â€Å"Backward Caste† because, as in the case of the first generation of Yoruba’s, this category did not exist during their lifetimes Democracy: According to Abraham Lincoln he defines democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people.In this wise democracy connotes a system of government in which all the people in a country will have the outright say on the government of their country although in a representative manner meaning that they will elect representatives that will represent their interest in the government. Advanced countries if the world where democracy is practiced completely they have national identity as opposed to the developing world w here they have ethnic identity.Advanced democracies always believe in secularism in which every religion is accepted and embraced not a system in which part will have cognisance to a religion and the other will believe in other religion causing serious tension in such states like Nigeria. Federalism : Elasar (cited in Akande, 1996:1)† the formation of European union (EU) which simply begun as a trading partnership for coal and steel is now moving towards a more integrated political union founded upon federal principle of governance†.The African union (AU) which is the federation of African counties where a central government intended to be created with sharing or division of power among the federating unit, even the world highest organization body united Nation have in some little degree, evolved the principle of federalism. Federalism is a system of government which embraces unity in diversity. Federalism as a system of government is one in which there will be central a nd regional governments each one autonomous of each other.

Relevance of marketing concept to the 21st century business of Essay

Relevance of marketing concept to the 21st century business of sainsbury - Essay Example Marketing is science of choosing the target market via market segmentation and analysis and also getting the insight of the consumer buying behaviour and giving them superior and better customer value (Roe, 2004). Description of the Marketing Concept The marketing concept is goal oriented and integrated concept that producers of services and goods practice and the basic focus is upon the satisfaction of needs of the consumers over needs of the company that is producing (McCarthy, 1960). The marketing concept says that the needs and the desires of the target market should be determined and fulfilled so that the goals of the producer can be achieved successfully. The major role of marketing is to assist in the identification, satisfaction and retention of the customers. The loyalty of the customers can be gained by constantly delivering the competitive advantage. A general term that is used for describing the various kinds of options that are available to the company for bringing their service or product into the market is known as marketing mix (Fletcher, 2004). There are four Ps that come in this marketing mix that mean product, promotion, price and place. The value added selling concept is gaining importance day by day for quite some time now. So many services and products in the market today are considered to be commodity and therefore the addition of value to them is absolutely important. It is very important to provide a high professionalism level and an expert advice. (Ferrell et al., 1998). Packaging, service levels, frequent buyer programs, recognition and rewards, transitions, education, qualititative presence, speed of service and delivery, insider information and dedicated personnel are all important things when it comes to adding value (Wrigley, 2000). Market segmentation is also an important phenomenon as the buyers of the service or a product are not members of a homogenous group. In actual all the buyers have their own specific needs, characterist ics, preferences etc (Assael, 1992). The common characteristics help in the development of standard marketing mix for all similar customers in a segment. Some of the researchers have regarded segmentation as the strategy for conquering the markets by dividing them. Target Market is a term that describes the segment of the market o which the specific service or good is marketed. This is mainly done on the basis of gender, age, geography, demographics and socio economic grouping etc. Target marketing relates to the market breaking up into segments, and after that concentration of the marketing efforts upon a single or few of the key segments. The process of target marketing makes the process of pricing, promotion, distribution much easier and much more cost effective. It provides a focus on all the marketing activities (Smith, 2001). Positioning relates to the way the potential buyers visualize the product and it is the position that your brand has in the minds of target consumer. Dom estic marketing involves the marketing strategies that attract and impact the customers within a country’s political boundaries. In the international marketing

Genetically Modified Food Speech or Presentation

Genetically Modified Food - Speech or Presentation Example There is immense turbulence in the food industry because of the adverse effects of the genetically modified foods on human body, their minimal nutritional value, and their potential to cause diseases. The high cost and lack of awareness among farmers are factors that might hinder the growth of food industry that has otherwise immense potential of growth. This report based on primary and secondary research discusses food industry’s growth in relation to a range of technological, economic, and political factors. Primary survey conducted with focus group interview was based on 4 respondents’ groups including company executives, government agencies, investors, and people. Two genetically modified food making companies’ executives were asked questions. They emphasized upon the role of technology and market dynamics in making and sale of genetically modified foods respectively. The importance of technique of production varies from one industry to another, with techniqu e being more important in the manufacturing of genetic foods, but the role of supply chain is the same in all industries. Company executives generally believe that supply chain management and logistics services are vital to food industry’s growth. Interview with the Associations 1 employee from two NGOs each were asked questions regarding food industry’s ethics. ... NGOs conduct research to minimize the possible environmental effects of genetically modified foods. NGOs are proactively ensuring food security and safety along with taking measures for environmental health and safety. Interview with Government official 1 government official was asked about the policies regarding production and distribution of genetically modified foods. He told that government obliges food manufacturers to mention the type and nutritional value of food. While there are no government-sponsored schemes of food-labelling in the US, yet the government prohibits the presence of genetically modified materials in organic foods so that it can label GMO-free foods. Government offers certification and encourages consumers to use renowned brands for their security. Government has established three levels of legislative framework for consumers’ security; one being government’s assessment of genetically modified crops for environmental and health safety, the second being government’s prohibition of sale of unsafe genetically modified foods, and the third being food labelling. Government is proactively managing genetically modified foods. Interview with Customers Companies can determine future state and plan strategically by conducting consumer survey. In this survey, 5 consumers were asked questions. Consumers don’t mind buying genetically modified foods provided that they are cheap and their nutritional value is preserved. Consumers feel confident buying genetically modified foods with governmental support and security. Consumers clearly understand the differences between organic and genetically modified foods saying that the former grown naturally while the latter are grown technologically. Consumers think that genetically

Legal Methods and Legal Structures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Legal Methods and Legal Structures - Essay Example The issue of whether wearing religious apparel can be prohibited or restricted has been appeared as an important topic of discussion in several jurisdictions. Unfortunately, no clear or uniform response to this particular issue or claims has been recognised so far. In certain circumstances, courts are involved in justifying the ban on religious attire, while in other circumstances, courts are often seen to lack in making proper jurisdictions concerning the aforesaid issue. A comparison of two religious apparel cases that predominately arise in the context of school has been depicted in the following discussion. In R. (on the application of Playfoot) v Governing Body of Millais School [2007] H.R.L.R. 34, a 16 year old minor named Lydia Playfoot was the claimant. Lydia was pursuing her education from a non-denominational girl’s school in Horsham West Sussex. The Governing Body of Millias School was the defendant, which prohibited Lydia to wear a chastity ring (purity ring) as an insignia of her commitment made towards her religious beliefs. Nevertheless, the school has defined a clear set of dress code, which restricted the wearing of apparel other than plain ear studs. Notably, Lydia’s father disagreed with such dress code formulated by the school. Subsequently, she filed a lawsuit claiming for judicial investigation of the defendant’s decision. Her claim was grounded on the fact that the decision of the school prohibiting her from wearing purity ring was against her right to freedom.

Entrepreneurship in Dilemma Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Entrepreneurship in Dilemma - Dissertation Example However, not all countries are willing to adopt the principles of freedom, trade, and business development. Nigeria does not have a rich history of business development and entrepreneurship. Nevertheless, the Nigerian President sets a challenging task to make Nigeria one of the world’s leading economies by 2020. Needless to say, entrepreneurship will play one of the key roles in the economic and social development in the country. This is one of the reasons why the factors of accountability and governance in the small business sector in Nigeria require detailed analysis. Aims and objectives The key question for the proposed study is What Implications Do Accountability and Governance Have for the Future Nationwide Entrepreneurship Development in Nigeria? The key research objectives include: To define and explore the concepts of accountability and governance; To understand and explain the implications of governance and accountability for entrepreneurship; To discuss and evaluate the current state of entrepreneurship in Nigeria; To find out and estimate the prospects of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria until 2020; To explain how accountability and governance can serve the needs of the future entrepreneurship development in Nigeria; To provide recommendations for the future research. Literature Review The current state of literature provides abundant information about accountability and governance in entrepreneurship but leaves little room to the discussion of entrepreneurship in Nigeria (Switzer, LN & Tang, M 2009). Globalization and the following integration of national markets generate great chances for the fast development of business and entrepreneurship in all parts of the world. Nevertheless, not all states are ready to change their principles of freedom, trade, and business development (Switzer, LN & Tang, M 2009). Many of them, especially developing countries meet a lot of difficulties on this way. However, it is possible to create a general p icture of entrepreneurship in the African continent and estimate its prospects for the future. It should be noted, that governance and accountability are among the most popular, essential and widely discussed topics of scholarly analysis. The reasons for this are numerous and varied. First and foremost, governance provides a multitude of effects on strategic decisions in entrepreneurship (LeBreton-Miller & Miller 2008). According to LeBreton-Miller and Miller (2008), small and medium enterprises that operate in the context of personal ownership are entirely distinct from those that are owned by diffuse stakeholders. Governance also affects manager-owner agency costs and bears heavy consequences on the quality of strategic outcomes (LeBreton-Miller & Miller 2008). Second, governance is essentially about power, and when globalization adds pressures on entrepreneurs, governance becomes an object of business and professional scrutiny (Verhezen & Morse 2009). As of today, governance ofte n serves the source of competitive advantage for firms, and pressures for improved governance challenge the established status quo in entrepreneurship (Verhezen & Morse 2009). Ultimately, governance has much to do with the value of firms: Switzer and Tang (2009) suggest that endogenous governance mechanisms constantly interact. Eventually, governance and accountability have far-reaching implications for policymaking in business and entrepreneurship (Bhasin 2010). Much has been written and said about

Charter Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Charter - Research Paper Example APEX brings together all business programs and units for efficiency in running the company as a whole. The Six Sigma Strategy is used by the company to improve its business operations. The improvement project as a whole aims at making sure that these best practices upheld by Raytheon function as they are supposed to for the general well-being of the company. The Program Management College is meant to provide training courses for the company managers and for other employees as well. Raytheon has always faced challenges in phasing out the start-up process of many of its running programs. To improve on this, it has established the Program Start-up process to ensure that every initiated program in the company has more than enough to see to it that it starts on a high note. The Program Management Forum aims at providing opportunities for managers to network and exchange ideas with managers of other companies on the best managerial skills. The management of the company has identified the existence of a gap in its business model whereby they report to the wrong people. This led to the creation of Program Structuring, Learning and Effectiveness to ensure more accountability on everybody’s part. This project is further based on a strong matrix model where reporting is done through integrated business models and cross business teams. These models are aimed at ensuring that the company is effective, efficient, and capable and utilizes its working capacity to the maximum. Raytheon has identified the need to improve its services and products. One of the major reasons for so doing is the rapid increase in the rate of competition for the services and products it offers. The company wants to become the best in the world of defense and information technology, hence the need to roll out a program that will help it to achieve this goal. The company has also established various goals that it wants to

Perspectives on the Relationship between Dolphins and Humans Essay

Perspectives on the Relationship between Dolphins and Humans - Essay Example Dolphins are viewed as allies to human beings, their actions seemingly non-threatening and their motivations appearing to be intent on being helpful. However, it is unclear that the alliance that dolphins feel towards human beings is adequately shown in reciprocation towards the dolphins. The following study will provide a framework for studying the perceptions that humans have in regard to their relationships with dolphins. Because of their high intelligence there is some speculation that they should be considered ‘persons’. White defines ‘human’ as a scientific classification with ‘person’ being a philosophical concept that can easily be transferred onto the dolphin species. The primary reasons to consider dolphins as ‘persons’ is for the purpose of giving them rights. White continues to describe the philosophical foundation for considering dolphins ‘persons’ through the fact of their high intelligence and in that because of this intelligence, they should have the benefit of rights. The problem in ascribing rights to another species is that it would conflict with the human belief that they are the center of the world and the creation of that world. Humans believe that all things within the world are there for the benefit of human kind. White states that â€Å"the existence of nonhuman persons would fly in the face of everything our speci es has believed about its uniqueness for thousands of years†.

Globalization inevitably leads to a homogenous 'world' culture and the Essay

Globalization inevitably leads to a homogenous 'world' culture and the erasure of local richness. Discuss using a variety of examples from your research into cu - Essay Example external manifestations of globalization which have been the focus of criticism are (a) cultural imperialism (b) Americanization and (c) McDonaldization. This may be noted specifically in the European countries where the cultural and linguistic diversity of this small geographical area is increasingly being made vulnerable to the dominant influence of American culture and values. Critics of globalization argue that it leads to a homogenization or hybridization of cultures, so that the rich diversity of local culture and traditions may be irretrievably lost. (Nederveen Pieterse 1995; Robertson 1995). The end of the Cold War, symbolized by the disintegration of the Soviet Union has resulted in the emergence of a new global era (Meyer et al 1997, p 174) where the competition between the former super powers is being replaced by a consumer driven social, political and economic scenario. (Freidman, 2000). The bureaucratic, tightly controlled economies of the Cold War era have yielded to free trade. The Berlin wall came down and so did the trade barriers between countries, opening up the doors to technological advancement and an age of communication where the Internet has revolutionized the availability of information, creating a knowledge based economy.(Thurow 2000, p 116). Information is the new mantra that spells success in the modern world .(Shapiro and Varian, 1999). Intellectual capital is important and the use of business worldwide webs spells power. (Lynn 2000; Bernhut 2001). The Internet has been described as â€Å"a decentralized, global medium of communication comprising a global web of linked networks and computers.† (Thurow, 2000, p 116). It enables instant communication across geographical boundaries and thereby has fostered the growth of an era of capitalism and consumerism, where the focus has shifted to economic interests, with political, social and cultural aspects being subordinated to the dominant capitalist trend. This has produced the phenomenon

CHINA'S TERMS Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CHINA'S TERMS - Coursework Example After the objective is brought forward, rules and regulations can be easily set up and the foreign policies can be well dealt with (Tutor2u.net, 2014).  . It is usually stated that the companies might lose the market share if it decides that to let go of a new or international market. Although, the ethical and moral beliefs state differently. It is believed in their case that it is not appropriate to work alongside collective governments. In case the company decides to leave the market due to some reasons then the rival business will take the advantage and step up to get a hold of a higher market share. Entering the market later makes it harder for the companies to gain a higher market share or at times a moderate market share. I believe that the company should not transfer their technologies and hence prefer the first option that can prove to be the best for companies. The market in China is increasing in volume and is has a growing market. The companies as a result aim at protecting and safeguarding their own sales and thus, stay put to their production methods. The transfer of technology can be both time consuming and costly. China can, however, provide the company with good business but it is also true that the companies can prefer other countries to set up their production factories at, as they are only assumed to be the customers of Chinas product

Biodegradable Plastics Essay Example for Free

Biodegradable Plastics Essay The properties of plastics are determined by the polymers that constitute the unit. Based on this, plastics can be modified into biodegradable products by varying the constituents synthetically. Their chemical structures vary due to the substituting polyesters in the polymer chain. Let’s study about the chemical differences and structure of green plastics; PHA and PLA. Amylose and Amylopectin are the major polymer components of starch. In the link structure, all identical chain points are connected to –CH2OH group. The oxygen in the ring structure chain facilitates degradation when reacted with water. Any hybrid variety can be produced with two components: renewable natural polymer (starch) and petroleum based synthetic polymer (PCL). †¢ Polylactide (PLA) is a bioplastic basically made from starch, the basic building material. Here lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH) is produced through fermentation where microorganisms convert sugar feedstock into lactic acid. The lactic acid thus isolated is depolymerized to lactide and by Ring-opening polymerization with catalysts it is converted into Polylactide polymer of high molecular weight. Based on the particle size, the rate of biodegradability and transparency varies. They find use in soluble fibers, compose bags and renewable products. †¢ Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) polymers are produced naturally by microorganisms directly from sugar feedstock. The polymer is isolated, purified and processed. These components can be controlled by varying the ratio of sugar feedstock. Synthesized PHA is copolyester composed of 3-hydroxy fatty acids hydroxybuterate, hydroxyvalerate and hydroxyhexanoate. In all PHAs the hydroxyl substituted carbon atom is steriochemical -R configuration. Since they are composed of short chain and long chain length –R groups, they are used for a variety of commercial applications. References Journal of Applied Microbiology, 2007, Pp 1437-1449 Stevens, E. S. , Green Plastics: An introduction to the New Science of Biodegradable Plastics, Princeton University Press, 2003

Role of Exercise in Reducing Insulin Resistance

Role of Exercise in Reducing Insulin Resistance By: Pranav Maddali Abstract The major pathway of glucose regulation in the body is via the Glucose Transport System (GTS) in which cells stimulated by insulin cause an upregulation in expression and translocation of a glucose transporter protein, GLUT4, to the cell plasma membrane, resulting in increased glucose transport into the cell. Thus, insulin is directly responsible for regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. However, increased dietary intake and the lack of physical exercise has been implicated in creating a condition known as insulin resistance, whereby the cells fail to uptake glucose in response to insulin stimulation, leading to hyperglycemia and significantly increasing the odds of acquiring insulin-dependent (Type-1) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (Type-2). However, recent studies have shown that skeletal muscles, the major consumer of glucose in the body, possess an alternative mechanism to elicit glucose uptake using GLUT4 instead of insulin stimulation, which is tr iggered by exercise. This review elucidates glucose transport mechanisms in both normal and insulin resistance states and the role of physical exercise in potentially reversing insulin resistance and helping regulate blood glucose levels in diabetic patients. INTRODUCTION Glucose, Insulin, and the Glucose Transport System Glucose is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with fructose and galactose, which is directly absorbed into the bloodstream during digestion. This simple monosaccharide serves as both, the main substrate for energy production as well the precursor to the synthesis of many other carbon containing molecules in the body [1]. In relatively healthy individuals, following a meal, glucose absorbed from the gut during digestion stimulates the release of insulin, a peptide hormone, from pancreatic ÃŽÂ ²-cells. This results in glucose uptake by skeletal muscles and adipose tissues, promptly returning plasma glucose levels to the normal range (approximately 4.4-6.1 mM) [1]. During resting conditions, the absorbed glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscles, and as triglycerides in adipose tissue [1]. In times of fasting or increased energy demand, these stores are quickly re-converted back to glucose and released into the blood stream, helping maintain homeostatic blood glucose concentrations. By promoting postprandial glucose uptake by muscle and adipose tissues via the Glucose Transport System (GTS) and suppressing hepatic glucose production, insulin is directly responsible for regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body [1-3]. Given that the cell membrane is impermeable to glucose, specific carrier proteins or transporters spanning the cell membrane allow the binding and uptake of glucose across the hydrophobic lipid bilayer. Mammalian cells possess two general classes of these carriers/transporters: 1) ATP-dependent Na+/glucose co-transporters that transport glucose against a concentration gradient and 2) facilitative glucose transporters which work in the direction of the glucose gradient [4, 5]. Following digestion, the Na+/glucose co-transporter transports glucose from the lumen of the intestine into polarized epithelial cells where subsequent facilitative transport of glucose moves glucose out of the intestinal epithelium and into the blood. Given that different tissues have different physiological energy needs, their uptake of circulating blood glucose is mediated by tissue-specific glucose transporter proteins called GLUTs [1, 4]. 14 different GLUTs have been identified in mammalian cells that are further divided into three subclasses on the basis of sequence similarities and biochemical properties, of which   the roles of GLUT1-GLUT4 in the GTS are the most well characterized [6, 7]. INSULIN-MEDIATED POSTPRANDIAL GLUCOSE TRANSPORT During resting conditions, GLUT1/3/5, constitutively localized to the cell plasma membrane, provide low-level of basal glucose uptake required to sustain respiration in all cells [1]. However, during postprandial conditions, high glucose in the blood stimulates the release of insulin from the ÃŽÂ ²-cells found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. This secreted insulin regulates the uptake of blood glucose in stimulated skeletal muscles and adipocytes by binding to the insulin receptor (IR) on the surface of the cell (Figure 1). Following insulin binding, the ÃŽÂ ²-subunit of IR undergoes autophosphorylation on tyrosine residues activating its tyrosine kinase activity. The activated IR then phosphorylates Insulin Receptor Substrates (IRS-1) which serves as a docking protein for Phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), activating it. The serine phosphorylation cascade initiated by PI3K activates PI3K-dependent serine/threonine kinases (PDK), which activates downstream Akt k inase, resulting in the translocation and exocytosis of intracellular GLUT4 vesicles to the cell surface. This upregulation of GLUT4 localization on the plasma membrane results in an increased rate of glucose transport into the cell [1, 4, 5, 8, 9]. The necessity of each of these activation steps has been established by in vitro studies on muscle and adipose tissue that used specific kinase inhibitors or mutant proteins and observed the complete ablation of the stimulatory effect of insulin on glucose uptake in insulin stimulated cells. Furthermore, the translocation of GLUT4 specifically in response to insulin approximately 1% pre- vs. almost 40% post-stimulation, suggests a mechanism of regulation to restrict glucose uptake during low-insulin states [1, 9]. Given that GLUT4 translocation is a critical regulatory site for glucose uptake, abnormal GLUT4 regulation in response to insulin stimulation can have a significant impact on glucose homeostasis in the body. Interestingly, recent studies have shown that mice fed with high caloric diets show significantly decreased glucose uptake in muscle and adipocytes despite stimulation with insulin [8, 10]. Further analysis revealed significant down regulation of PI3K and its downstream substrate PDK in addition to increased expression and activity of Protein Kinase C isoform theta (PKC-ÃŽÂ ¸) in these mice, suggesting impaired insulin mediated signaling and a direct co-relation with high caloric diets (red boxes/arrows in Figure 2) [8, 11-13]. This lack of response to insulin stimulation has long been implicated in the pathogenesis of Type-2 or Non-insulin dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM) and is commonly referred to as insulin resistance. INSULIN RESISTANCE FINDING A SWEET SOLUTION The term insulin resistance is used to describe a combination of a lack of insulin-mediated glucose uptake in cells stimulated by insulin and a defect in the ability of insulin to suppress hepatic glucose production; the former commonly attributed to dysregulation of GLUT4 trafficking [14]. Over time, together with reduction in in insulin secretion by the pancreas, these aberrations have been directly linked to causing Type-2 Diabetes mellitus (T2D). Diminished insulin function at sites of insulin action, such as skeletal muscles and adipocytes (insulin resistance) and a decrease in the ability of pancreatic ÃŽÂ ²-cells to secrete insulin in response to postprandial increase in blood glucose levels, are two hallmarks of   T2D [15]. In recent years, Type-2 Diabetes mellitus has emerged as one of the major non-communicable chronic diseases around the world [2]. According to the CDC, that number is currently estimated to be about 26 million in the US alone. Recent epidemiologic data point to excess caloric intake combined with increasingly sedentary lifestyles as factors significantly contributing to this trend [16]. Although both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in causing these malfunctions, researchers have increasingly suggested that obesity, caused by a chronic imbalance between energy expenditure and energy intake, as one of biggest risk factors for developing insulin resistance and T2D [16]. Given that skeletal muscles constitute approximately 40% of human body mass and have relatively high energy requirements, they account for almost 50-75% of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the body [17]. Thus, skeletal muscle is considered the most important tissue with regards to insulin-stimulated blood glucose disposal, and correspondingly maintenance of glucose homeostasis, especially during postprandial periods. Interestingly, both in vitro and in vivo studies dating back to as early as 1987 have shown that in muscle cells, stimuli other than insulin can activate the glucose transport system, namely GLUT4 translocation, to a similar magnitude, albeit likely via a separate (insulin independent) signaling pathway [3, 9, 17]. Furthermore, while GLUT4 gene expression was reduced in adipose cells in insulin-resistant states such as obesity and NIDDM, skeletal muscle GLUT4 expression remained normal [9]. This finding prompted the thinking that insulin resistance in skeletal muscle is most likely due to alterations in the translocation, docking, or fusion of glucose transporters at the plasma membrane, and not defects at the transcription or translational levels. Additionally, researchers observed that in rodents, various modes of exercise and muscle contractile activity such as running exercises, swimming exercises, contraction of hind limb muscles via sciatic nerve stimulation, or contraction of isolated muscles, caused GLUT4 translocation in these skeletal muscles [18]. Additionally, similar studies published by the Goodyear, Holloszy, and Hargreaves groups over the past three years using human models have demonstrated that a single bout of exercise significantly increases glucose transport by upreguatling both GLUT4 expression and translocation in muscles, adding significant support to the hypothesis suggesting that exercise induced muscle contraction can improve glucose uptake by increasing both GLUT4 expression and translocation, potentially reversing the effects of insulin resistance and T2D [3, 5, 10].      Ã‚   WORKING THE GLUTs EXERCISE INCREASES GLUT4 TRANSLOCATION AND GLUCOSE TRANSOPORT Despite the fact that insulin stimulation and exercise-induced muscle contractile activity induce similar magnitudes of increases in muscle glucose transport via upregulation of GLUT4 vesicle translocation to the plasma membrane, the mechanisms of action of these two stimuli are very distinct [19, 20].Studies using cellular fractionation techniques have shown the presence of two distinct intracellular pools of sequestered GLUT4 vesicles, both containing the insulin-responsive amino peptidase (IRAP) and vesicle-associated membrane protein-2 (VAMP-2) that assist in in regulating endocytosis/exocytosis [20, 21]. However, the contraction stimulated GLUT4-vesicle pool was not recruited during insulin stimulation and the important components of the insulin signaling cascade IR, IRS-1, PI3K, etc., were not phosphorylated or activated by exercise [22-24]. Additionally, Wortmanin, a potent PI3K inhibitor, did not inhibit glucose transport stimulated by muscle contraction as it does the insul in-stimulated pathway, clearly indicating the presence of a distinct pathway [24]. Intracellular calcium, 5AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), nitric oxide (NO), and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38, have been implicated regulating GLUT4 translocation in the exercise-medicated effect, although the exact mechanism of how each of these exerts its influence is currently being explored (Figure 3) [9]. These acute effects of exercise, in conjecture with dietary restrictions and pharmaceutical interventions, can and are currently exploited by individuals and pharmaceutical companies in an attempt find a cure to insulin resistance and T2D. Although the mechanism of how chronic exercise training improves insulin sensitivity is unclear, muscle levels of GLUT4 as well as the activity of glycogen synthase have been shown to be elevated in athletes compared to sedentary controls with muscle GLUT4 expression increasing in individuals who exercise regularly[25]. This likely due to the fact that many genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism (hexokinase, GLUT-4) appear to be jointly upregulated together with mitochondrial enzymes in response to increased muscle contractile activity [10, 18, 19, 22] . CONCLUSIONS The recent drastic increase in the prevalence of T2D has been attributed mainly to decreased levels of physical activity and increased caloric intake. Several studies discussed in this paper have shown that higher levels of habitual physical activity results in increased glucose uptake in skeletal muscles via an insulin-independent mechanism. Furthermore, regular exercise has also been shown to improve insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake in subjects with insulin resistance and T2D. Thus, regular exercise together with diet and weight control, could be the answer to overcoming insulin resistance and significantly reducing the risk of acquiring Type-2 diabetes, and in turn decreasing the odds of developing dilapidating conditions such as atherosclerosis, glaucoma, and stoke.   References 1. Bogan, J.S. (2012). Regulation of glucose transporter translocation in health and diabetes. Annual review of biochemistry 81, 507-532. 2. Oliveira, C., Simoes, M., Carvalho, J., and Ribeiro, J. (2012). Combined exercise for people with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review. Diabetes research and clinical practice 98, 187-198. 3. Hansen, P.A., Nolte, L.A., Chen, M.M., and Holloszy, J.O. (1998). Increased GLUT-4 translocation mediates enhanced insulin sensitivity of muscle glucose transport after exercise. J Appl Physiol 85, 1218-1222. 4. Stephens, J.M., and Pilch, P.F. (1995). The metabolic regulation and vesicular transport of GLUT4, the major insulin-responsive glucose transporter. Endocrine reviews 16, 529-546. 5. Thorell, A., Hirshman, M.F., Nygren, J., Jorfeldt, L., Wojtaszewski, J.F., Dufresne, S.D., Horton, E.S., Ljungqvist, O., and Goodyear, L.J. (1999). Exercise and insulin cause GLUT-4 translocation in human skeletal muscle. The American journal of physiology 277, E733-741. 6. Joost, H.G., and Thorens, B. (2001). The extended GLUT-family of sugar/polyol transport facilitators: nomenclature, sequence characteristics, and potential function of its novel members (review). Molecular membrane biology 18, 247-256. 7. Thorens, B., and Mueckler, M. (2010). Glucose transporters in the 21st Century. American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism 298, E141-145. 8. Yu, C., Chen, Y., Cline, G.W., Zhang, D., Zong, H., Wang, Y., Bergeron, R., Kim, J.K., Cushman, S.W., Cooney, G.J., et al. (2002). Mechanism by which fatty acids inhibit insulin activation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1)-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity in muscle. The Journal of biological chemistry 277, 50230-50236. 9. Goodyear, L.J., and Kahn, B.B. (1998). Exercise, glucose transport, and insulin sensitivity. Annual review of medicine 49, 235-261. 10. Hussey, S.E., McGee, S.L., Garnham, A., McConell, G.K., and Hargreaves, M. (2012). Exercise increases skeletal muscle GLUT4 gene expression in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, obesity metabolism 14, 768-771. 11. Samuel, V.T., Petersen, K.F., and Shulman, G.I. (2010). Lipid-induced insulin resistance: unravelling the mechanism. Lancet 375, 2267-2277. 12. Malhotra, V., and Campelo, F. (2011). PKD regulates membrane fission to generate TGN to cell surface transport carriers. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology 3. 13. Summers, S.A., Garza, L.A., Zhou, H., and Birnbaum, M.J. (1998). Regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose transporter GLUT4 translocation and Akt kinase activity by ceramide. Molecular and cellular biology 18, 5457-5464. 14. Tanaka, S., Hayashi, T., Toyoda, T., Hamada, T., Shimizu, Y., Hirata, M., Ebihara, K., Masuzaki, H., Hosoda, K., Fushiki, T., et al. (2007). High-fat diet impairs the effects of a single bout of endurance exercise on glucose transport and insulin sensitivity in rat skeletal muscle. Metabolism: clinical and experimental 56, 1719-1728. 15. Kaufman, R.J. (2011). Beta-cell failure, stress, and type 2 diabetes. The New England journal of medicine 365, 1931-1933. 16. Shuldiner, A.R., Yang, R., and Gong, D.W. (2001). Resistin, obesity and insulin resistancethe emerging role of the adipocyte as an endocrine organ. The New England journal of medicine 345, 1345-1346. 17. Frosig, C., and Richter, E.A. (2009). Improved insulin sensitivity after exercise: focus on insulin signaling. Obesity (Silver Spring) 17 Suppl 3, S15-20. 18. Hayashi, T., Wojtaszewski, J.F., and Goodyear, L.J. (1997). Exercise regulation of glucose transport in skeletal muscle. The American journal of physiology 273, E1039-1051. 19. Douen, A.G., Ramlal, T., Rastogi, S., Bilan, P.J., Cartee, G.D., Vranic, M., Holloszy, J.O., and Klip, A. (1990). Exercise induces recruitment of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter. Evidence for distinct intracellular insulin- and exercise-recruitable transporter pools in skeletal muscle. The Journal of biological chemistry 265, 13427-13430. 20. Coderre, L., Kandror, K.V., Vallega, G., and Pilch, P.F. (1995). Identification and characterization of an exercise-sensitive pool of glucose transporters in skeletal muscle. The Journal of biological chemistry 270, 27584-27588. 21. Kristiansen, S., Hargreaves, M., and Richter, E.A. (1996). Exercise-induced increase in glucose transport, GLUT-4, and VAMP-2 in plasma membrane from human muscle. The American journal of physiology 270, E197-201. 22. Treadway, J.L., James, D.E., Burcel, E., and Ruderman, N.B. (1989). Effect of exercise on insulin receptor binding and kinase activity in skeletal muscle. The American journal of physiology 256, E138-144. 23. Goodyear, L.J., Giorgino, F., Balon, T.W., Condorelli, G., and Smith, R.J. (1995). Effects of contractile activity on tyrosine phosphoproteins and PI 3-kinase activity in rat skeletal muscle. The American journal of physiology 268, E987-995. 24. Yeh, J.I., Gulve, E.A., Rameh, L., and Birnbaum, M.J. (1995). The effects of wortmannin on rat skeletal muscle. Dissociation of signaling pathways for insulin- and contraction-activated hexose transport. The Journal of biological chemistry 270, 2107-2111. 25. Youngren, J.F., and Barnard, R.J. (1995). Effects of acute and chronic exercise on skeletal muscle glucose transport in aged rats. J Appl Physiol 78, 1750-1756.

Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis

Freuds Cases of Hysteria: Birth of Psychoanalysis Abstract This thesis returns to the original case histories that Freud wrote on the patients he treated for hysteria. Here in these early works, the beginnings of psychoanalytical theory take shape in the acceptance of purely psychological theories of hysteria. Catharsis leads to the first inklings of repression which requires the use of free association, which again leads into Freuds attempt to explain the strange neuroses he sees through seduction theory, which is again transformed as his thinking moves on. Through Anna O, Frau Emmy von N. and Dora, Freud discovered the seeds of what would become his all-encompassing theory of the human psyche. Modern reinterpretations (e.g. Rosenbaum Muroff, 1984) of those early cases that form the basis of modern psychoanalysis have come and gone, but the original texts remain as historical testament to the fermenting of those fundamental ideas. Introduction Hysteria has been a hugely popular subject for research in psychoanalysis and in the history of ideas. Its roots are clearly signalled by the Greek word from which the word comes: uterus. Indeed the uterus was seen by Egyptians as a mobile organism that could move about of its own will when it chose to do so this caused the disturbances only seen (or acknowledged) in women. Treatments for this disease included trying to entice the uterus back into the body with the use of attractive-smelling substances as well as the driving down of the uterus from above by the eating of noxious substances. Just under four thousand years later, the formulation and treatment of hysterics had barely improved. The history of hysteria shows how it has often been seen as a physical disorder, rather than a mental one. Borossa (2001) describes some of the most common symptoms of hysteria as involving paralysis of the limbs, coughing, fainting, the loss of speech and parallel to this the sudden proficiency in another language. The change of viewpoint that lead up to Freuds analysis was slow in coming, and, as Bernheimer (1985) describes, only showed the first signs of changing in the seventeenth century with the first questions being raised that perhaps hysteria had its origins in a mental disturbance of some kind. Antecedent to Freuds interest in hysteria, it was the clinical neurologist, Charcot, who had a great influence on the field and accepted, by his methods, a more psychological explanation. Although sexual factors had long been implicated in the aetiology of hysteria (Ellenberger, 1970), Charcot did not agree that they were a sine qua non although he did maintain that they played an important part. He treated patients using a form of hypnosis and eventually his formulation of how hysteria was produced and treated was closely intertwined with the hypnosis itself. It was this use of hypnosis that interested Freud and it was the implication of sexual factors in hysteria that was eventually to become influential. It seemed that hysteria and hypnosis might offer Freud the chance to investigate the link between mind and body (Schoenwald, 1956). Anna O: The First Psychoanalytical Patient The literature often describes Anna O as the first ever patient of psychoanalysis. As it is notoriously difficult to define precisely what psychoanalysis might mean because of its shifting nature through time, this is a claim that is clearly interpretational. Still, the fact that this claim is made raises the interest into precisely what it was that marked out Anna Os treatment and the theories accompanying it from what had gone before. Although Anna O was not a patient of Freud, but a patient of his close colleague at the time, Joseph Breuer, he took a great interest in her case and its treatment, and from it flowed some of the foundational aspects of psychoanalysis both through the analysis of this case and Freuds reaction and reinterpretation of it. One of the reasons that Freud was interested in Anna O was that she represented an extremely unusual case of hysteria. Anna O had first been taken ill while she had been taking care of her dying father. At first she suffered from a harsh cough which soon expanded into a range of other perplexing symptoms. Freud Breuer (1991) describe these symptoms as going through four separate stages. The first stage, the latent incubation, occurred while she was nursing her dying father she had become weak, was not eating and would spend much of the afternoons sleeping, which was then unexpectedly followed by a period of excited activity in the evenings. The second stage, which had begun around the time Breuer started treating her, contained a strange confluence of symptoms. Her vision was affected by a squint, she could no longer move any of the extremities on the right side of her body. The third stage, which roughly coincided with the death of her father, heralded alternating states of somnam bulism with relative normality. The fourth stage, according to Breuer, is the slow leaking away of these symptoms up until June 1882, almost two years after she had first come to see her physician. The question is, how had these symptoms been interpreted and what had Breuer done in claiming to effect a cure? It is in the case of Anna O that the most basic elements of a new talking cure can be seen. As told by Breuer, it is a treatment that grew organically, as if by its own power, as he continued to see the patient. Often, in the afternoons, when the patient would habitually fall into an auto-hypnotic state, she would utter odd words or phrases, which, when questioned by those around her, would become elaborated into stories, sometimes taking the form of fairytales. These stories told to Breuer, changed in character over the period of Anna Os treatment, moving from those that were light and poetic, through to those that contained dark and frightening imagery. The unusual thing about these stories was that after they were told, it was as though a demon had been released from the patient and she became calmer and open to reason, cheerful even, often for a period of twenty-four hours afterwards. There seemed to be, staring Breuer in the face, some kind of connection between the stories that Anna O told him and the symptoms which she was manifesting. It was here that Freud was to find the roots of a purely psychological explanation of hysteria. Breuer describes numerous examples of this connection. On one occasion Anna O appeared to be suffering from an uncontrollable thirst and was given to demanding water, although when it was brought, she would refuse to touch it. After six weeks of this continuing, one day, again in an auto-hypnotic state, she started to tell a story about a friend who had allowed her dog to drink out of a glass. This had apparently caused the patient considerable distress and seemed to have led to pent-up anger, which was expressed on this occasion to Breuer. Afterwards Breuer was surprised to find that her previous craving and then abhorrence of water had disappeared. Other similar connections between symptoms and a story told by the patient were also s een by Breuer so that eventually he came up with the theory that the patient could be cured systematically by going through the symptoms to find the event that had caused their onset. Once the event had been described, as long as it was with sufficient emotional vigour, the patient would show remission of that symptom. It was by this method that Breuer claimed to have effected a cure of Anna O over the period of the treatment. It is from this case, although not in the immediate reporting by Breuer, that some of the most fundamental principles of psychoanalysis begin to form. An element of the story that has now passed into psychoanalytic legend, with some accepting its truth while others rejecting it, provides a more dramatic ending to the therapeutic relationship than that presented by Breuer. According to Freud (1970) in his letters, he pieced together an alternative account of what had happened at the end of Anna Os therapy. According to Freud, Breuer had been treating Anna O in the way he had discovered, as previously described, and had finally reached the point where her symptoms had been removed. Later that day he was called back to his patient to find her in considerable apparent pain in her abdomen. When she was asked what was wrong she replied that, Dr. Bs child is coming! This immediately sent Breuer away from her at the highest speed as he was not able to cope with this new revelation. He then p assed her onto a colleague for further treatment as he had already realised that his wife was jealous of his treatment of Anna O and this new revelation only compounded the problem. Forrester (1990) draws attention to the fact that Breuer acknowledged the importance of sexuality in the causes of neuroses. But despite this, he backed away from Anna Os case as soon as it came to the surface. As Forrester (1990) points out, Freud sees this as Breuers mistake and sees in it the birth of a psychoanalysis, especially one of its most important aspects: transference, and more specifically: sexual transference. Through the way that Breuer describes Anna Os progress in his new type of therapy, the path which the theory of hysteria and its treatment takes gradually emerges. Although Anna Os case was reported later it was Breuer Freud (1893) that used her case as the basis for their theory of hysteria. Breuer Freud (1893) state that they believe that the symptoms of hysteria have, at their root cause, some kind of causal event, perhaps occurring many years before the symptoms expose themselves. The patient is unlikely to easily reveal what this event is simply because they are not consciously aware of what it is, or that there is a causal connection. They are not worried by the seeming disproportionate nature of the precipitating event and subsequent symptoms. In fact they welcome this disproportionate nature as a defining characteristic of hysteria. Their analysis likens the root cause, or pathogenesis, of hysteria to that caused by a traumatic neurosis    perhaps similar to what we would now call post-traumatic stress disorder. The patient has, therefore, suffered a psychical trauma that manifests itself in this hysteria. The idea that the psychical trauma simply has a precipitating effect on the symptoms is dismissed by the authors referring to the evidence they have from the case studies of the remarkable progress their patients made after the memory of the psychical trauma has been exorcised through its explication and re-experiencing. Importantly, in defining the problem, Breuer Freud (1893) see the symptoms as a kind of failure of reaction to the original event. The memory of the event can only fade if the reaction to that event has not been suppressed. And it is here that there is a clear precursor to ideas central to later Freudian theory about the nature and causes of repression. In normal reactions to psychical traumas, the authors talk of a cathartic effect resulting in a release of the energy. The reverse of this, the suppression of catharsis (Freeman, 1972), is seen here as the cause of the symptoms adequately evidenced by the new treatment of a kind of delayed catharsis that appears to release the patient from their symptoms. What, then, are the mechanisms by which a psychical trauma of some kind is not reacted to sufficiently? Two answers are provided here, the first that because of the circumstances of the trauma, it was not possible to form a reaction in other words the reactions is suppressed. The second is that a reaction may not have been possible due to the mental state of the person at that time for example during a period of paralysing fear. The circumstances in which the failure of a reaction occurs is also instrumental in the burying of these thoughts and feelings and helps to explain why the patient themselves is not able to access them in the normal ways. Frau Emmy von N. Freuds interest in hysteria and in hypnosis was certainly piqued by both Charcot and Breuer and having collaborated on the latters work with Anna O including the belief that he had found a theory of practical benefit it was only a matter of time before he became further involved in the treatment of hysteria himself. Reported as the second case history in The Studies on Hysteria, (Breuer Freud, 1991) a patient of Freuds, Frau Emmy von N., exhibited symptoms that typified hysteria and Freud resolved to treat her. He reports that the patient was 40 years old, was from a good family and of high education and intelligence. She had been widowed at a young age, leaving her to look after her two children this she ascribed as the cause of her current malady. Freud describes her first meeting as being continually interrupted by the patient breaking off, and suddenly displaying signs of disgust and horror on her face while telling him to, Keep still! and other similar remonstrations. Apart from this the patient also had a series of tics, some facial, but the most pronounced being a clacking sound which littered her utterances. Freuds initial treatment was more physical than mental. She was told to take warm baths and be given massages. This was combined with hypnosis in which Freud simply suggested that she sleep well and that her symptoms would lessen. This was helped by the fact that Freud reports that Frau Emmy von N. was an extremely good hypnotic subject he only had to raise his finger and make a few simple suggestions to put her into a trance. Freud wonders whether this compliance is due to previous exposure to hypnosis and a desire to please. A week later Freud asked his patient why she was so easily frightened. She replied with a story about a traumatic experience that had occurred when she was younger her older brothers and sisters had thrown dead animals at her. As she described these stories to Freud, he reports that she was, panting for breath as well as displaying obvious difficulty with the emotions that she was dealing with. After these emotions have been expressed, she became calmer and more peaceful. Freud also uses touch to reinforce his suggestion that these unnerving images have been removed. Under hypnosis, Freud continued to elicit these stories that demonstrated why she was so often nervous. She explained to Freud that she had once had a maidservant who told her stories of life in an asylum including beatings and patients being tied to chairs. Freud then explained to her that this was not the usual situation in asylums. She had also apparently seen hallucinations at one point, seeing the same person in tw o places and being transfixed by it. While she had been nursing her dying brother, who was taking large quantities of morphine for the pain he was in, he would frequently grab her suddenly. Freud saw this as part of a pattern of her being seized against her will and resolved to investigate it further. It was a few days after this that quite a significant point in the therapy came. Emmy von N. was again explaining about the frightening stories of the asylum and Freud stopped himself from correcting her, intuitively realising that he had to let her give full vent to her fears, without redirecting her course. This is perhaps a turning point in the way in which Freud treated his patient, made clearer by the historical context in which this scene operates. While still seen as authority figures now, physicians were much stronger authority figures then. This combined with the greater imbalance of power between men and women would have meant that the patient would be naturally hesitant about taking any control over their own treatment. Forrester (1990) sees this as a shift in the pattern of authority between the doctor and the patient that originated in Breuers treatment of Anna O a move from the telling the patient what to do, to listening to what the patient has to say. Forrester (1990 ) constructs the relationship that Freud began to build with Emmy von N. as more of a framework of authority within which the patient was able to express her thoughts and feelings to the doctor and in this sense the doctors job is to help the patient keep up this outpouring of stories. At this stage of the development of the therapy, the facilitation of the story-telling is being achieved by hypnosis, although later Freud was to move away from this. How great the shift in the power balance was, it is difficult to tell a this distance, but what is clear from the case report is that Emmy von N.s case provided a much more convoluted series of psychical traumas and symptoms than that presented by Anna O. While Anna Os symptoms seemed to match the traumatic events rather neatly, Emmy von Ns mind was not nearly as well organised. At one point Freud discovers that taking the lift to his office causes his patient a considerable amount of stress. To try and examine where this comes from he explores whether she has had any previous traumatic experiences in lifts a logical first step within the theoretical framework. Coincidentally, it appears, the patient mentions that she is very worried about her daughter in relation to elevators. The next logical step then should be that talking about this fear should release the affect and lead to catharsis, but this is not what Freud finds. The next part of the puzzle is revealed when he finds out t hat she is currently menstruating, then finally the last part falls into place when he finds out that as her daughter has been suffering ovarian problems, she has had to travel in a lift in order to meet with her doctor. After some deliberation Freud realises that there is in fact a false connection between the patients menstruation and the worry at her daughter using a lift. It is this confusion of connections that Freud begins to realise is a form of defence to the traumatic thoughts. Freuds Treatment of Hysteria In the final part of Studies in Hysteria Freud sets out his theory of hysteria and what he has learnt about its treatment. Not only does this part of the book recap some of the themes already discussed but it also highlights some future direction in which Freuds work would travel. Two key signposts are seen: first in his stance on hypnotism, and secondly in his view on what constitutes hysteria. In an attempt to be of benefit to patients with hysteria, who he believed this treatment would help, he tried to treat as many as possible. The problem for him was how to tell the difference between a patient with hysteria and one without. Freud chose an interesting solution to what might have been a protracted problem of diagnosis. He simply treated patients who seemed   to have hysteria and let the results of that treatment speak for themselves. What this immediately did was to widen out the object of his enquiry to neuroses in general. Picking up on the lightly touched theme of sexual tr ansference between Breuer and Anna O mentioned earlier, Freud made his feelings about the roots of neurotic problems quite clear, and in the process set the agenda for psychoanalysis for the next century or more. He believed that one of the primal factors in neuroses lay in sexual matters. In particular Freud came to acknowledge that peoples neuroses rarely came in a pure form, as the early and almost impossibly neat case of Anna O had signposted, and that in fact people were more of a mixed bag. Looking back through the cases reported in Studies on Hysteria Freud explains that he came to see a sexual undercurrent in his notes that had not been at the forefront of his mind when he had treated the patients. Especially in the case of Anna O as already noted Freud felt Breuer had missed a trick. What these ideas seem to be adding up to is almost a rejection of hysteria, if not as a separate diagnosis, certainly as a category of disease practically amenable to treatment. Freud, however, is defensive about rejecting the idea of hysteria as a separate diagnosis, despite the fact that that is the direction in which his thoughts are heading. At this stage he believes it can be treated as a separate part of a patients range of symptoms and the effect of this treatment will be governed by its relative importance overall. Those patients, like Anna O, who have relatively pure cases of hysteria will respond well to the cathartic treatment, while those diluted cases will not. The second key signpost for the future of psychoanalysis was Freuds use of hypnosis. What he found was that many of the patients he saw were simply not hypnotisable Freud claims unwillingness on their part but other writers are of the opinion that he was simply not that good at it (Forrester, 1990). This was a problem for Freud because Breuers formulation of the treatment for hysteria required that events were recollected that were not normally available to a person. Hypnosis had originally proved a good method and indeed in Anna Os case the only method for gaining access to these past events. In response, Freud now turned away from hypnosis to develop his own techniques for eliciting the patients traumatic events. These were quite simple: he insisted that the patient remember what the traumatic event was, and if they still could not, he would ask the patient to lie down and close their eyes nowadays one of the archetypal images of patient and analyst. Freud saw the patients relu ctance of his patients to report their traumatic events as a one of the biggest hurdles in his coalescing form of therapy. He came up with the idea that there was some psychical force within the patient that stopped the memories from being retrieved. From the patients he had treated, he had found that the memories that were being held back were often of an embarrassing or shameful nature. If was for this reason that the patient was activating psychical defence mechanisms. At this stage he hoped to be able to show in the future that it was this defence or repulsion of the traumatic event to the depths of the memory that was causing so much psychical pain to the patient. Overcoming this psychical force, Freud found, was not as simple as insisting, and he developed some further techniques. Patients would easily drift off their point or simply dry up and it needed more powerful persuasion to return them to the traumatic event. One particular technique he found extremely useful and would almost invariably use it when treating patients. This involved placing his hand on the patients head and instructing them that when they feel the pressure they will also see an image of their traumatic event. Having assured the patient that whatever they see, they should not worry that this image is inappropriate or too shameful to discuss, then they are asked to attempt a description of the image. Freud believed that this system worked by distracting the patient, in a similar way as hypnosis, from their conscious searching for the psychical trauma and allowed their mind to float free. Even using the new technique of applying pressure, it did not provide direct access to the psychical trauma. What Freud found was that it tended to signal a jumping off point or a way-station, somewhere on the way to or from the trauma. Sometimes the image produced would provide a new starting point from which the patient could work, sometimes it fitted into the flow of the subject of discussion. Occasionally the new image would bring a long-forgotten idea to the patients mind which would surprise them and initially seem to be unrelated, but later turn out to have a connection. Freud was so pleased with his new pressure technique that, in complex cases, he would often use it continuously on the patient. This procedure would bring to light memories that had been hitherto completely forgotten, as well as new connections between these memories and even, sometimes, thoughts that the patient doesnt even believe to be their own. Freud is careful to point out that although his pressure technique was useful, there were a number of very strong forms of defence that stopped him gaining easy access to the patients psychical trauma. He often found that in the first instance, applying pressure by his hand to the patient would not work, but when he insisted to the patient that it would work the next time, it often would. Still, the patient would sometimes immediately reinterpret or, indeed, begin to edit what was seen, thus making the reporting much less useful. Freud makes it clear that sometimes the most useful observations or memories of the patient are those that they consider to be of least use or relevance. Also, the memories will tend to emerge in a haphazard fashion, only later, and with the skill of the analyst, being fitted together into a coherent picture. Freud refers to this as a kind of censoring of the traumatic events, as though it can only be glimpsed in a mirror or partially occluded around a corne r. Slowly but sure the analyst begins to build up a picture with the accretion of material. There is nothing, Freud believed that is not relevant every piece of information is a link in the chain, another clue to the event that has traumatised the psyche. Another major component of psychoanalysis makes its first appearance in the Studies on Hysteria. Freud describes a final defence or block against the work of treating hysteria in the very relationship between the patient and doctor. Indeed, Freud sees this defence is sure to arise, and perhaps the most difficult defence of all to overcome. The first of the three circumstances in which it may arise is a simple, probably small, breakdown in the relationship between the physician and patient. It might be that the patient is unsure about the physicians techniques or alternatively has felt slighted in the treatment in some way. This can be rectified with a sensitive discussion. The second of the three circumstances occurs when the patient becomes fearful that they will lose their independence because of a reliance on their treating physician. As almost all of Freuds patients who had hysteria were women, this could be conceived as a sexual reliance. The third circumstance is where the pati ent begins to take the problem that they are trying to resolve and transfer it onto the physician, thereby seeing their problem there instead of where it really exists. Freud provides the straightforward example of the sexual transference of a female patient of his who suddenly developed the vision of kissing him. He reports that the patient could not be analysed any further until this block had been addressed. The mechanism by which this transference happens, he posits, is that the patient creates a false connection between the compulsion which is the basis for their treatment and the therapist, rather than its original recipient. In treating these defences Freud makes it clear that the main aim should be to make the patient aware that this problem exists, and then once they are aware of it, the problem is largely dealt with. The challenge, then, is getting the patient to admit to these potentially embarrassing feelings. The Aetiology of Hysteria The development of Freuds theory of the aetiology of hysteria provides one of the most insightful, and sometimes controversial, areas of his work. The formation of the theory, like the work on its treatment, provided another important testing ground for some of the basic elements of what would later become psychoanalysis. Previous authors, including Breuer in the joint work with Freud in Studies on Hysteria, gave great weight to the heredity factors in the causes of hysteria. Freud meanwhile acknowledged these ideas, but in Heredity and the Aetiology of the Neuroses (Freud, 1896b) set out the three factors he believed were important and began to formulate a new theory. The causes of hysteria could be broken down into: (1) Preconditions this would include hereditary factors, (2) concurrent causes which are generalised causes and (3) specific causes, these being specific to the hysteria itself. It is in these specific causes he believed he had found an important contribution to aetiology of the condition. One of the common factors of the patients Freud was seeing, and the one he was coming to see as defining, was in their sexual problems. He reports that while many suffered from a range of different symptoms such as constipation, dyspepsia and fatigue, almost all of them had some kind of sexual problems. These ranged from the inability to achieve orgasm to a more general inability to have a satisfying sexually relationship. Freud saw this as a very significant problem as he maintains that the nervous systems needs to be regularly purged of sexual tension. This pattern across his patients, and the development of his theory of traumatic psychical events, led him to wonder what past events could have caused the sexual dysfunction the patients with hysteria were manifesting. Radically, and expecting no small amount of opposition to the idea, Freud advanced the theory that these neuroses were caused by sexual abuse before the age of sexual maturity. Of the thirteen cases that Freud had tre ated at the time of the paper, all of them had been subject to sexual abuse at an early age. However, Freud does make it clear that the information about their sexual lives is not obtained without some considerable pressure, and it only emerges in a fragmentary way that has later to be pieced together by the therapist. At this early stage of the theory, Freud believed that the sexual abuse left a psychical trace and formed the traumatic experience which was locked away in the depths of the mind. These ideas were much further developed and expanded on in Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence (Freud, 1896a). Earlier Freud had grouped together hysteria with hallucinatory states and obsessions (Freud, 1894) and had begun to formulate the idea that all of these conditions had a common aetiology. In particular, Freud felt these were all part of an area where the ideas of psychological defences and psychological repression were important. Freud had found that patients he had seen had suffered sexual abuse sometimes as early as two years old and up to the age of ten, which he drew as an artificial cut-off point. What other theorists saw as a heredity, Freud saw as the confluence of factors for example if a boy had been sexually abused when he was five then it was likely that his brother would have been abused by the same person. Rather than seeing heredity as a separate factor in hysteria, he saw the sexual abuse as a replacement for heredity, sometimes exclusively, as the root cause in itself. The theory shows an interesting divergence in the analysis of obsessional neuroses. Here, Freud believed that the obsessional neuroses were caused by a sexual activity   in childhood rather than the sexual passivity typical of abuse. These ideas linked in neatly to the greater preponderance of obsessional neuroses in males. A logical division is therefore made with the females, the apparently more passive sex suffering from hysteria, while the apparently more active sex suffering from obsessions. In searching for the aetiology of these two conditions, it is here that Freud prefigures his future thinking on stages of sexual development by introducing the idea that the development of neuroses and/or hysteria is/are dependent on when the sexual abuse occurs in the developmental stages of the child, with sexual maturation providing the cut-off point. In The Aetiology of Hysteria Freud again makes clear his divergence from his mentor, Charcot, in claiming that heredity is not the most important factor in the aetiology of hysteria (Freud 1896c). Freud (1896c) travels back through the life-histories of the patients he has treated looking for the original source of the psychical trauma, discounting all sexual experiences at puberty and later. It is only in pre-pubescent children, when the potential for harm is at its greatest that there lies a sufficient cause. Freuds theory revolves around the idea that at a

Letter (colonist) to Britian friend in 1776 Essay -- essays research p

1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Letter to friend in England. Dearest Friend of England,  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1776   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I know it is hard to believe we (the colonists) would be on the verge of a revolution against our own homeland. My father has explained to me the reasons we deserve independence from God, the King, and the British people. There are many things going on in the colonies to lead us to our current thoughts. The British people have imposed many Acts upon us colonists.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the year 1767, British parliament passed Mr. Charles Townshend proposed taxations upon the colonies. These taxes were indirect taxes. The merchants were forced to pay the taxes directly. These taxes were applied to the importation of lead, paint, glass, and tea. The British have authorized the admiral fleets to punish those not abiding by the act. My father and many other colonists believe the naval personnel are trying people in an admiral court to take the money for personal gain not actual legal reasons. These acts have led many colonists like my father to resist the taxation. A farmer from Pennsylvania has circulated papers about the illegal ramification of the Townshend act.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We, the people of the colonies, are being taxed without representation within Parliament. The British government is proving to be one of corrupt policies. The people here are boycotting the purchases of British imports. The British government has sent troops into all the colonies. Troops are looking for work in our colonies at our factories. In Boston on March 5, 1770, there was considered to be a massacre. Three troops had attempted to get a job at a local rope factory. The boss assigned them to latrine clean-up. These soldiers took this as an insult and reacted. The soldiers were beat and thrown in the streets. That night those soldiers were stationed outside the British Customs House. A mob gathered around the troops and a bell was rung to wake the town. British soldiers started shooting at the mob. There were a total of 5 dead and 8 wounded. This massacre led the British government to repeal the Townsend Acts on all products but tea. This was so the colonist.. . ... cities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The British governor of Virginia, Lord Dunsmore, has ordered to defeat the colonial planters belonging to the sons of liberty. He decides his best strategy would be to use slaves and indentured servants. In 1775, he declared the proclamation of emancipation. This proclamation gave slaves freedom if they fought for Britain. A surprising 2000 slaves and servants respond to offer. These men were given guns without proper training and told to go fight the planters. The 2000 men confront the planters at the Battle of the Great Bridge. The 2000 men were defeated and retreated back to Lord Dunsmore. They return to find him and the British gone from the states. I do not believe this is a correct way to lead an Army by cowardice. Do you?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My friend, I hope that my knowledge has led you to believe we the colonists are doing right. We have been forced to abide by rules set by people who do not live here and without representation there. I have given you the true accounts of all the incidents we have encountered. Please do not believe the misrepresented tales given by the British troops.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Patricia

The Ethics of Jane Austens Heroines Essay -- Biography Biographies Es

The Ethics of Jane Austen's Heroines      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jane Austen's novels at first glance tell a story of romance set primarily within the landowning society amidst country estates, and their cultivation of tea parties, social outings, and extravagant balls; ladies sashaying in flowing gowns through precisely decorated rooms, and men deliberating over their game of whist. The storybook romance usually unfolds in these familiar settings, and inevitably involves the conflict of two lovers separated by differences in social class, and the resulting influence of the diverse societies they revolve in. Although these superficial aspects of Austen's stories are protruding at the seams, underneath the skin of these well-clothed dramas lie serious moral issues afflicting the culture of England during Austen's life.         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Jane Austen seems to have been disheartened by the decay of England's aristocratic society. The exploration of the innocent protagonist of each novel further into her core ethics, and the relation of these to the imposing culture of her immediate family and surrounding social class gives the reader a fresh taste of the prominence of class distinction and the apparent emptiness of the aristocratic society that in reality existed in Austen's own life. A close examination of the evolution of Austen's ideals through her novels will reveal the essence of the protagonist's relationship to her family, and its direct relationship to the family's moral stance, as well as conclusive evidence regarding Austen's own values.         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Austen's first completed novel, and most popular novel to date, Pride and Prejudice, tells th... ...ense of moral integrity, she discovers that her high society family is inferior in every vital aspect. The concluding statement of this journey reads:         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anne, satisfied at a very early period of Lady Russell's meaning to love Captain Wentworth as she ought, had no other alloy to the happiness of her prospects than what arose from the consciousness of having no relations to bestow on him which a man of sense could value. There she felt her inferiority keenly.         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The parallel of Anne's growth as a compassionate woman, to Austen's growth as a compassionate writer is felt immensely by the reader. To value virtue over vanity, cultural and class diversity over conformity is to be free from the narrow confines of the ignorant mind. This is ultimately Austen's powerful message.