Gender and Leadership: Literature Review

sex activity and leading Literature Review 1. Introduction Leadership theories and literature describe what attractors should do and on the other(a)(a) hand literature also exists on what attractions actu entirelyy do, the former ar normative and the latter argon descriptive (Bratton et al 2005). Leadership bearing is a relatively consistent right of deportments that characterise a leader (DuBrin 1995). The main leadinghiphip theories encompass the trait, behaviour, contingency, king squ be off, and sexual activity play and transfer leadership perspectives.This paper foc designs on transformational leadership and thus will detail the surmise underpinning transformational leadership vis a vis grammatical sexuality resistences in leadership. A brief discussion on Leadership effectiveness as it relates to sexual practice and Leadership sorts will also be sh witness. In a correction of sex and leadership movements it is strategic to highlight the deeper found ations that dedicate a bearing on why workforce and women may lead differently. adept of those causes has been found to be culture a brief recap of this take a crap and its bearing on sexual practice has also been outlined in this section. . 2 sex and Leadership Swanepoel et al (2003) define sexual urge as a demographic factor that may influence Human imagerys wariness in organisations and which rat lead to similar problems of inequality in the workplace. DuBrin (1995) state that the terms sex and sexual practice arouse controversy about(prenominal) scientific exclusivelyy and politically. He further states that the term sexual activity refers to perceptions about the expirations among priapic persons and womanishs whilst sex differences refer to actual tangible differences such(prenominal) as the fact that the mean height of men is greater than that of women.The terms gender and sex be, however, practically used interchangeably. Task and inter person-to-person styles in leadership interrogation argon obviously rele avant-gardet to gender because of the stereotypes pot fix about sex differences in these aspects of behaviour (Ashto a greater extent, Del Boca, & Wohlers, 1986 Eagly & Steffen, 1984). Men ar believed to be to a greater extent than(prenominal) than self-assertive and motivated to overlook their environment (e. g. , much aggressive, independent, self-sufficient, forceful, and dominant). In contrast, women argon believed to be more unselfish and concerned with others (e. . , more kind, helpful, understanding, warm, sympathetic, and aware of others feelings). Although democratic versus autocratic style is a different (and narrower) aspect of leader behaviour than task- sharpened and interpersonally oriented styles (see freshwater bass, 1981), the democratic- autocratic dimension also relates to gender stereotypes, because atomic number 53 component of these stereotypes is that men are relatively dominant and authorita tive (i. e. , more autocratic and directive than women.Bratton et al (2005) highlight a study conducted by Schein (1975) who ex endureed the gender issue in Leadership further with the results confirming that to both the young-begetting(prenominal) and pi evenate person managers who participated in the study being a successful manager meant being masculine in terms of stereotypical behaviours (Bratton et al, 2005). Wajcman in Bratton, Grint and Nelson stated, Some leadership behaviours are interpreted differently depending on the gender of the leader. For example, a particular action seen as firm when displayed by a man (e. , banging the turn off top with the hand) might be termed hysterical when displayed by a woman. (Bratton et al 189). Women are said to perplex participative care more natural than men because they feel more comfortable interacting with people and that their natural predis send encourages group members to participate in decision- making (Dubrin 1995). Yet as women move up the corporate ladder, their realization with the manly model of corporate success becomes important and may even reject the few powder-puff traits that they may precedent have endorsed. freshwater bass (1998) in his review of studies other than his own concludes that there is no consistent pattern of virile- egg-producing(prenominal) differences in leadership styles. Modern theory proposes that women lead differently than men (Bratton et al 2005). This theory tends to promote the idea that women have the characteristics and skill that are necessary for effective leadership and that these skills and characteristics take a more interactional leadership style, the ability to build consensus, a tendency to em magnate others, and a greater ability to nurture others (Bratton et al 2005).Robbins (date) in Swanepoel et al (2003) points out that the similarities betwixt women and men tend to outweigh the differences, and that these differences suggest that men are c omfortable with a curbive style while feminine managers prefer a democratic style (Swanepoel et al 2003). The gender perspective argues that women leaders have an interactive, people centered, participative management style. Women leaders are associated with consensus building and power sharing.Views in favour of the gender perspective counselling for equal opportunities at the work place full utilization of women to utilize available human resources cite of the special contri just nowion women can make the work place due to their leadership style and transpose entreees to situations (Bratton, et al 2005). Swanepoel et al (2003) state that in general women follow a transformational leadership style, which emphasises following, consensus, and the use of charisma, personal reference and personal contact to enhance interpersonal relations and to influence followers.Men, however prefer a more direct style where job performance is seen as transactional and they also tend to use bo llock position, power and authority to control people. To tackle the question of whether men and women have different leadership styles, Eagly and Johnson conducted a 1990 review of leadership studies. Notably, although lab studies viewed women as both interpersonally oriented and democratic and men to be both task-oriented and autocratic, field studies indicated a difference on only one of those dimensions The omen were found to be more democratic, encouraging participation, and the men were more autocratic, directing performance. http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss A 2003 meta-analysis extended those results and indicated that women were slightly more probable than men to have the transformational leadership style. Women also appeared to reward unspoiled performance more than men, a very corroboratory part of transactional leadership. Men were more likely to criticize places and be slight hands-on, styles found to be ineffective. http www. psychologymatters. rg/womanbo ss. However, psychologists discretion against concluding that women or men have some sort of natural or inherent leadership style. There is a possibility that women, knowing how negatively people respond to bossy women, soften their approach. Additionally, the check shows only averages, or tendencies, for each sex. Some men will have more feminine management styles some women will have more masculine management styles. (http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eaglys advice is to be careful about the power of perception.She says that even though the research found some differences in leadership style, the sex differences are atomic because the leader role itself carries a lot of weight in determining peoples behaviour. She concludes that women are in some senses better leaders than men but suffer the disadvantage of leadership roles having a masculine image, oddly in some settings and at high trains. Stripping organizational leadership of its masculine aura would consent to psychologists to withdraw a clearer picture of any true differences between men and women. http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss)Eagly and Johnson highlighted the following summaries from their review The prevalence of available evidence is that no consistently clear pattern of differences can be discerned in the supervisory style of female as compared to male leaders (Bass, 198 l, p. 499)There is as yet no research evidence that makes a case for sex differences in either leadership aptitude or style (Kanter, 1977a, p. 199) In general, comparative research indicates that there are few differences in the leadership styles of female and male designated leaders (Bartol & Martin, 1986, 19. 278).However Quantitative reviews of this research have established the presence rather than the absence of boilers suit sex differences (Eagly, 1987 Eagly & Wood, in press Hall, 1984). These differences, although typically not large, tend to be comparable in order to most other findings r eport in social psychological research. (http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) 3. 3 Cultural Dimension the bind to gender Several theories have been put forward to account for gender differences including biological differences, differences in primordial childhood and the fulfilment of culturally prescribed gender role expectations.Thomas and Bendixen (2000) refer to Thomas and Ely (1996) who sire the essence of cultural issues in organisations when they state that employees make choices at work based on their cultural background (Thomas and Bendixen 2000). It is thus important for organisations to understand these values that employees bring into the workplace (Thomas and Bendixen 2000). Thomas and Bendexin (2000) also cant on Trompenaars (1993) who identified different levels of culture, noting that national culture is at the highest level whilst organisational culture is at the conterminous level down in the hierarchy of culture. sexual urge related differences in le adership styles may have a foundation in culture. Schein (1990) defines organisational culture as a pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered, or veritable by a revealn group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked vigorous enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as the correct course to perceive, prize and feel in relation to those problems. (Schein, 1990 111).He further identifies three levels at which culture manifests itself as evident artefacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 1990). Observable artefacts are things that one sees or feels upon entering an organisation. This includes the dress code, the physical layout, the liveliness and feel of the place to the more tangible things such as the annual reports and company records (Schein, 1990). Through interviews, questionnaires, or survey instruments one can study a cultures espoused and documen ted values, norms, ideologies, charters, and philosophies. (Schein, 1990 112). More direct questioning can reveal the more the underlying assumptions, which determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings and behaviour (Schein, 1990 112) For Edgar Schein (1985) the transformation that matters is a change in the corporate culture. What do leaders pay attention to, measure, and control sends symbolic signals to the suspension of the corporate culture. Hofstede is a central figure in the development of literature on the cultural construct in leadership (Dickson, Hartog & Mitchelson 2003).He advances the idea that cultural differences are initially encountered as differences in shared out values with values being defined as tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Dickson et al 2003). Hofstede (1980,2001) described initially four culture dimensions individualism-collectivism masculinity-femininity uncertainty dodge and power distance and a fifth part dimension, future orientation was added in later work (Dickson et al 2003). Power distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.Hofstede (in Dickson, Harthog & Mitchelson, 2003, pg 737). Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a society feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (Dickson et al p. 740). Individualism versus collectivism spues from societies in which the ties between individuals are loose and people are expected to take care of themselves and close family only to societies that are tight where people expect their in-group to look after them and they do so in return (Dickson, et al. 2003). Masculinity versus femininity ranges from societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct to societies in which social gender roles overlap (Dickson, et al. 2003). This dimension has a direct bearing on gender issues in that so cietal roles determine gender roles and these ultimately have a bearing on the leadership style that one practices, In her exploration of African management van der Colff (2003) uses the African tree concept advanced by Mbigi (1996).According to this concept the main stem underpinning all the most important values of African History can be traced through ubuntu, which is the key to all African values and involves collectivism (van der Colff 2003). Traditionally African leadership is built on participation, responsibility and uncanny authority. (van der Colff 2003,258). Nussbaum (1996) in van der Colff (2003) is quoted as saying that African leadership requires transparency, accountability and legitimacy. The only way they can be legitimate is to be trus 2rthy themselves before they can expect trust from employees (van der Colff 2003).Bass (1997) has argued that transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed, that regardless of culture, transformational leaders tickle pink followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would would usually be expected. While acknowledging the universality of transformational leadership, Bass recognized that cultural differences will contribute to differences at the individual level of measurement.He stated Variation occurs because the same concepts may contain specific thought processes, beliefs, implicit understandings, or behaviors in one culture not another (p. 132). This raises the question of the universality of gender differences in transformational leadership. Although there have been several studies on gender differences in America, unknown is the extent that these findings are replicated in other cultures. This study will show some findings of transformational leadership with a Zimbabwean sample. 3. 4. Transformational Leadership theoryFrom a broad perspective, leadership styles can be transformati onal and transactional a transformational leadership style is one that seeks to influence behaviour through inspirational and motivational means. Transactional leadership styles use contingency factors such as rewards and punishment to influence and affect behaviour (Densten, Gray & Sarros, 2002). The transactional leadership theories emphasise transactions between leaders and their followers. Transactional leaders get things do by giving contingent rewards such as recognition and pay increases.These leaders usually manage by exception to monitor performance and take corrective action to remedy myopic performance. They motivate followers by clarifying role and task requirements (Swanepoel 2003). Transformational leadership was first coined by destroy (1978) and further developed by Bass (1985, 1998) and Yammarino & Bass, (1990) with research accumulating in the area over the past fourteen years. Transformational leadership is defined in terms of four inter-related factors idealis ed influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. taken together, these sub-types are believed to represent the most effective attitudes and behaviours a leader can have. (Panopoulos 1998). The transformational characteristic of idealised influence is based on earlier conceptualisations of charisma (e. g. House, 1977). The charismatic leader is able to inspire respect and higher order motivation in followers. The leader is able to communicate a sense of power and effrontery in higher values and beliefs. The charismatic leader possesses a clear set of idealised qualities with which followers might wish to be associated (Panapoulos 1998).The leader who provides inspirational motivation to followers is likely to speak optimistically about the future, articulating a compelling vision of what must be achieved. He motivates followers by his/her own enthusiasm. The leader is therefore not merely a distant charismatic source of referent power b ut is also able to directly and effectively translate his/her own enthusiasm to followers (Panapoulos 1998). The leader must also provide intellectual stimulation to followers. In providing intellectual stimulation, the leader is said to orient ollowers to awareness of problems, to their own thoughts and imagination, and to the recognition of their beliefs and values (Yammarino & Bass, 1990 in Panapoulos 1998). Furthermore, by providing an intellectually stimulating environment, transformational leaders are able to foster the development of creative solutions to problems, which stand in the way of organisational goal attainment. Panapoulos (1998) states that from a human-centred perspective, the most outstanding component of transformational leadership is the leaders individualised consideration of his/her followers.According to Bass and his colleagues (Yammarino, Spangler & Bass, 1993 in Panapoulos 1998), a leaders use of individual consideration is a crucial subdivision in follow ers achievement of their full potential through a close consideration of their developmental needs. In providing individual consideration, the leader is not only aware of and sensitive to the current needs of followers, but is also aiming to elevate those needs to a higher level (in combination with the use of the other factors of transformational leadership).This can be done by coaching and mentoring, as well as by setting examples and tasks, which are developmentally consistent with the needs of each individual (Panapoulos 1998). Gender differences in transformational leadership A review of past research A function of authors have speculated on possible gender differences in the use of transformational leadership (e. g. , Avolio & Bass, 1988 Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995), however, there has been a notable lack of evidence (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass contends there are none.Yet, other studies show that women develop a feminine style of leadership, which is characterized by cari ng and nurturance, and men adopt a masculine style of leadership, which is dominating and task- oriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). In a study of 345 metropolitan furcate managers Carless (1998) found that Female managers are more likely than male managers to report that they take an interest in the personal needs of their staff, encourage self-development, use participative decision-making, give feedback and publicly recognize team achievements.In summary, female managers report they use more interpersonal-oriented leadership behaviors compared to male managers (Carless, 1998). The review by Eagly and Johnson was the first systematic and well-rounded analysis of gender differences in leadership. Earlier reviews (e. g. , Bartol & Martin, 1986 Dobbins & Platz, 1986) were based on limited samples and were criticized because they failed to specify the selection criteria for comprehension in the review. Eagly and Johnsons (1990) meta-analysis of gender differences in leader ship revealed mixed findings.An analysis of task-oriented style and interpersonal oriented style showed that women and men did not differ on these dimensions in organizational studies. Differences were noted for studies in which the sample did not formally hold a leadership position (experimental and assessment studies). On the other hand, significant gender differences were inform in the use of democratic leadership in organizational, experimental and assessment studies. Women used a more participative and inclusive style of leadership and men were more likely to use a directive, controlling style. Carless, 1998). Studies which have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Bass, 1985b Avolio, et al. , 1995) to examine gender differences in leadership style have reported conflicting findings. Bass, Avolio and Atwater (1996) examined gender differences in leader behaviour with three samples. Sample I consisted of 79 female and 150 male upper-level leaders who worked for Am erican hi-tec, Fortune 50 firms. Subordinate ratings of leadership (N = 877) indicated that female leaders were rated higher on all transformational leader behaviors compared to male leaders.These findings are consistent with an earlier study of leaders in the Roman Catholic church (Druskat, 1994). Sample 2, consisted of first-level supervisors employed by a number of organizations, 38 of the leaders were female and 58 were male. Subordinates (N = 271) observed no gender differences for the subscales of Intellectual Stimulation and sacred Motivation, however, females were reported as higher on the subscales of Charisma and Individual Consideration.Sample 2 findings were consistent with an earlier study reported by Bass and Avolio (1994). Generally, in studies that report significant differences between females and males the effect sizes are very small and it is therefore argued that there is no practical differences between female and male leaders (Yammarino, Dubinsky, Comer & Jols on, 1997). In the third sample of 154 female leaders and 131 male leaders who worked for nonprofitable organizations (e. g. health care), subordinates (N = 913) reported no differences in the leader behavior of females and male leaders. Similary, Komives (1991) found no difference between female and male manager self-ratings of transformational leadership, with the exception of Intellectual Stimulation women managers were found to be significantly higher than their male counterparts(Carless,1998). According to the gender-centred perspective, individual attributes vary according to their gender (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987 Hennig & Jardin, 1977 Loden, 1985).This approach proposes that, women develop a feminine style of leadership, which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a masculine style of leadership, which is dominating and taskoriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). Similarly, the social-role theory (Eagly, 1987) proposes that individuals assume in accord ance with societal expectations about their gender role. Through the socialization process, people learn to set to cultural expectations about their gender role.The feminine model of leadership includes typical transformational leadership behaviors, for example, participatory decision-making, collaborationism and quality interpersonal relationships between leader and subordinate (Eagly, Karau, Miner & Johnson, 1994 Helgesen, 1990 Loden, 1985). Hence, it could be expected that females and males may differ in their use of certain transformational leadership behaviors(Carless,1998). The structural perspective suggests that the organizational role the individual occupies is more important then the gender of the individual (Kanter, 1977).Within organizations clear guidelines exist for the expected performance of managers, wherefore the major issue for managers is meeting the organizations expectations regarding effective management performance, not conforming to culturally defined gen der roles. Assuming female and male managers occupy the same role within an organization and have equivalent access to status and power there is no reason to expect gender differences in leadership styles (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995).This suggests that when examining gender differences in leadership behavior it is important to compare women and men who occupy the same position in the organization and are at the same level in the organizational hierarchy. (Carless ,1998). Eagly and her colleagues (Eagly & Johnson, 1990 Eagly, et al. , 1995) suggest that gender differences vary according to the extent of gender congeniality. Gender congeniality is described as the fit between gender roles and particular leadership roles (Eagley, et al. , 1995, p. 29). It reflects an individuals interest in a specific leadership role and judgement of their competence to perform that role. In some organizations, such as the military, leadership positions are defined in more masculine terms than f eminine. Thus, leadership positions in these organizations would be described as congenial to men. In others, such as education and nursing, leadership is defined in more feminine ways and therefore could be described as congenial to women(Carless, 1998). 3. 5Effective LeadershipSince women began to climb the corporate ladder, authorities have asked if they have what it takes to lead groups and organizations. According to the research, while men and women are equally effective in some settings, more often effectiveness depends on the fit between the setting and management gender. For example, womens typically more mentoring, coaching style is more favorably received in female-dominated professions mens more typically command and control style is well received in male-dominated professions. http www. sychologymatters. org/womanboss . In essence therefore, all things being equal, men and women are equally effective. But given varied work settings and a workplace whose top managers are still more likely to be male, all things rarely are equal. For example, women are slightly more likely to be transformational leaders, serving as role models, helping employees develop their skills, and motivating them to be dedicated and creative. That approach may actually be more effective in todays less hierarchical organizations.But not all workplaces are alike The participatory style may backfire in traditional male settings such as the military or organized sports. Conversely, the command-and-control style more typical of men may backfire in a social-service agency or retail outlet. (httpwww. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) A 1995 review by Alice Eagly, PhD, Steven Karau, PhD and Mona Makhijani, PhD, of more than 80 different studies found that when aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective.The leaders or managers assessed in the studies were typically first-level or first-line super visors, with a muscular minority of studies looking at mid-level managers or managers of mixed or unknown levels. The analysis also showed that women were more effective leaders in female-dominated or female-oriented settings, and that men were more effective leaders in male-dominated or male-oriented settings. Thus working in a leadership role congruent with ones gender gives the perception that one is more effective. (http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Theories of transformational leadership (e. . , Bass, 1985a Conger & Kanungo, 1988 Kouzes & Posner, 1987 Sashkin & Burke 1990 Trice & Beyer, 1986) have focused on identifying a range of leadership behaviors which contribute to effective performance. Although these theories differ in the leadership behaviors they distinguish, there exists a number of commonalty themes. Transformational leaders articulate a vision, use lateral or nontraditional thinking, encourage individual development, give regular feedback, use participa tive decision-making, and promote a cooperative and trusting work environment. http www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Densten, et al. (2002) emphasise that successful leaders are able to build a strong corporate culture, are truth-tellers, can see the invisible, that is, touch modality potential winners or identify trends before their rivals or customers, are fast learners and good communicators. Leaders are expected to anticipate future events before they occur and have a vision to overcome uncertainties. Managers on the other hand are expected to run current operations effectively and efficiently (Bratton, et al. 2005). favourite in Swanepoel, Erasmus et al argues a real test of successful leadership in management lies in giving, to the greatest extent possible, opportunities to others within the situational context of the firm. One does not have to be brilliant to be a good leader, but you have to understand people- how they feel, what makes them tick, and the most effect ive ways to influence them. (Swanepoel, Erasmus, van Wyk, Schenk 359) DuBrin (1995) state that in order to be a leader one has to make a difference and to facilitate positive changes.They further state that the common characteristic of effective leaders is their ability to inspire and stimulate others to achieve worthwhile goals (Dubrin 1995). Drucker (2004) outlines eight practices followed by effective executives. He says that they ask, What needs to be done? and What is right for the enterprise. Effective executives also develop action plans, they take responsibility for decisions and communicating, focus on opportunities rather than problems, run productive meetings and focus on we rather than I (Drucker 2004).Drucker (2004) further explains that the first deuce practices gives them the knowledge they need, the next four help to convert this knowledge to effective action and the last two ensure that the whole organization feels responsible and accountable. Researchers are espe cially interested in the question of whether a management style more associated with women a less authoritarian, more nurturing approach will click as the workplace generally shifts to more team-oriented structures that thrive under a less directive approach. 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